Which of the following is the analysis of empirically established cause and effect?

A) operationalization
B) the Hawthorne effect
C) generalizability
D) causality
E) none of these choices

Causality

Refers to the analysis of causes and their effects. Specifically, causality means that a change in the independent variable (x) produces a change in the dependent variable (y). In analyzing survey data, we establish causality by demonstrating that an association exists between x and y; x precedes y; and the introduction of a causally prior control variable does not result in the original association disappearing.

Empirically Established

Information or theories that are confirmed or supported by observation, experiment, or other forms of scientific research.

Generalizability

The extent to which findings from a study can be applied or extended to broader populations, settings, or times.