Schmauk has suggested that psychopaths are not unresponsive to physical punishment, but rather respond opposite to the punisher's intention, presumably as a way of exercising some degree of control in the face of aversive experiences. This behaviour has been referred to as _____ behaviour.

A) irrational
B) defiant
C) contradictory
D) operant
E) oppositional

This behaviour has been referred to as oppositional behaviour, as it is characterized by a persistent pattern of defiance, resistance, and noncompliance with authority figures. Psychopaths may engage in oppositional behaviour as a way of asserting their autonomy and maintaining a sense of control, even in the face of punishment. This type of behaviour is often associated with conduct disorder, a diagnosis that is frequently applied to children and adolescents who engage in rule-breaking, aggressive, or antisocial behaviour.